Pro-Environmental Behaviour Change: Motivation, Impact of Stress

 SOUTHERN CROSS UNIVERSITY 

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MOTIVATION, BEHAVIOUR CHANGE, IMPACT OF STRESS ON PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR

Pro-Environmental Behaviour Change

As a world community we are facing the collective challenge to develop and uphold behaviours that ensure a stable environment and a resourceful planet. It is evident that we, as a society, need to change our behaviour and do so without delay.

Intricate interrelationships between personal factors and social factors make this behaviour change cumbrous (Gifford & Nilsson, 2014). Thought-provoking results come from a study that found a connection between experiences with psychedelic substances and pro-environmental behaviour due to a feeling of connectedness with the world and nature (Forstmann & Sagioglou, 2017). Alternatively, we might need to imagine pro- environmental behaviour change more vividly to uncover the motivation to act (Boomsma, Pahl, & Andrade, 2016).

This bibliography attempts to capture and link some aspects of a multifaceted dilemma. One paper analyses the role of parenting within habit formation, attitudes towards the environment and motivation. Another paper illustrates that a social computer game can motivate people to change behaviours and yet another discusses the delicate balance of adhering to pro-environmental behaviour and falling back into unsustainable habits under stress.

Behaviour change requires a certain structure to be achievable. Firstly, behaviour needs to be identified and further examined for what causes it. Next, an intervention needs to be designed and applied. Finally, the effects of the intervention must be assessed. Motivational factors for pro-environmental change comprise costs and benefits, our social norms, and one’s own appraisal and salience of a situation (Steg & Vlek, 2009). As one can see, it is a complicated and energy consuming process, and there are many obstacles to overcome to achieve appropriate pro-environmental action.

Some of the barriers we confront are structural issues like low income, no public transport or bicycle friendly roads and cold climate habitats that require heating. When we are not constrained by infrastructure, we have psychological obstacles to overcome: Vagueness about climate change, not knowing what to do and how to do it; not being able to truly capture more than our immediate place and time; defence mechanisms and denial about the gravity of our situation or becoming numb due to an overflow of media information. Complex social impasses like certain ideologies, norms, comparisons, mistrust, and reactance hinder change. Pro-environmental behaviour change encompasses taking risks; financially, physically, socially, and it costs time. Most importantly, our daily habits play a leading role in the context of climate change (Gifford, 2011). Good intentions are not enough and changing behaviour for a brief time only obliterates previous efforts. Even if the complexity of this problem is overwhelming, we must not get discouraged and keep looking at all facets to find solutions.

Paper 1

Buttlar, B., Latz, M., & Walther, E. (2017). Breaking Bad: Existential Threat Decreases Pro- Environmental Behaviour. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, No. 3, 153 – 166. DOI: 10.1080/01973533.2017.1296360

Online PsycINFO (Ebsco) database; search terms: pro-environmental behaviour. On the left-hand navigation, select ‘Methodology’ and tick ‘Field Study’.

This German study reviews the neuropsychology of habits and tests the effect of stress on pro-environmental behaviour in two experimental studies. The first experiment assesses the use of paper towel in a public toilet under two conditions: Condition one (pro- environmental condition) asks the participants to use only one paper at a time; condition two (stress condition) sets up a poster about an environmental and existential threat, namely the Cattenom nuclear power plant nearby in recollection to earlier events of Fukushima. The team measured paper use at a baseline (no condition) and again in each condition. The results showed that a gentle reminder of pro-environmental behaviour decreased paper use and that stress caused by threat increased paper use back to baseline level or even more. The second experiment followed the same concept, this time at the cafeteria and instead of paper towels they measured napkin use. The results were equivalent to the first experiment. The team concludes through integration of previous theories about stress and habit formation that people cannot sustain newly prompted pro-environmental behaviour change when under threat. The study challenges the terror management theory, that predicts an increase of socially expected behaviour (sustainable paper use) under stress, because norm-consistent behaviour reduces anxiety (Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynki, 1997).

In both experiments however, the social norm-induced condition might not have been situationally established enough or observable to the participants involved. The team could not control variables in the toilets, for example how much paper was used per person. Nonetheless, the observation that people fall back into ‘bad’ habits under stress is comprehensible. The assumption that environmental threat itself counteracts pro- environmental behaviour change illustrates an alarming point that requires further research and reflection. As fascinating experimental research is, it is impossible to control all elements of the experiment and therefore has limitations in terms of validity and reliability.

Paper 2

Grønhøj A., & Thøgersen, J. (2017). Why young people do things for the environment: The role of parenting for adolescents’ motivation to engage in pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 54, 11 - 19.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.09.005

Online PsycINFO (Ebsco) database; search terms: pro-environmental behaviour AND motivation.

This Danish study examines how parenting structure, role-modelling and parenting styles are linked to adolescents’ motivation to engage in pro-environmental behaviour. It is an empirical study that collects data from adolescents (N=448) and one of their matching parents (N=448), using 5 different online questionnaires. The team gathers information about motivation towards the environment, autonomy support, descriptive norms, perception of parental structure and pro-environmental behaviour. The paper first reviews that parents influence many aspects of their children’s attitudes, values and behaviours. The team reasons that this would also apply to children’s environmental behaviours and views. A nurturing and warm parenting style that sets tangible expectations and gives the child choices, supports the child’s autonomy. This self-determination fosters pro-environmental behaviours (Deci & Ryan, 1985). The study confirmed that parents own self-determined values towards the environment inspire their children to have comparable views. They concede that adolescents exhibit less self-determined motivation compared to their parents; however, this depends on how much autonomy they have had growing up. It further depends on how children perceive their parents as role models, what their parents expect from them and how parents shape pro-environmental daily structures.

This study purely relies on self-reports. Self-report measures are difficult to gauge as they are vulnerable to social desirability. However, it is crucial to reflect upon what part motivation is playing in relation to constructive behaviour towards our environment. Resourceful actions like recycling, awareness of the environment, and reflections about environmental change require time and energy. These are not necessarily intrinsically driven behaviours. Environmental attitudes and behaviours need to be learned, sustained and adapted over time. Autonomy and locus of control helps to feel good about change and to internalise these behaviours. This is how integrated motivation develops. External motivation instilled by reward systems or punishment needs to be reviewed in this context.

Paper 3

Ro, M., Brauer, M., Kuntz, K., Shukla, R., & Bensch, I. (2017). Making Cool Choices for sustainability: Testing the effectiveness of a game-based approach to promoting pro- environmental behaviours. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 53, 20 -30.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.06.007

Online PsycINFO (Ebsco) database; search terms: pro-environmental behaviour AND behaviour change.

This American study reviews psychological barriers to change behaviour regarding pro-environmental action and discusses limitations of research in this field, for example relying on self-reports. The research team aims to gather and analyse data using a multi- method approach by introducing the online, team-player game ‘Cool Choices’ as an intervention. Gamification as a method has advantages. It integrates information and education playfully, creates social groups, encourages communication, and reaches attitudes and values. The goal of ‘Cool Choices’ is to modify behaviour by repeating pro- environmental actions, gradually establishing cyber-habits. The game further encourages real-life pro-environmental actions. Once completed, these are shared via the social network. In the first study, electricity consumption was obtained before the game and compared to 6 months after the game. Gathered data about pro-environmental behaviours, history of actions, ideas for innovations and solutions, and personal photos were displayed publicly in the game. Consequently, people would encourage each other, compete against other teams, and remind their team members when they are inactive. Social diffusion is a crucial element to motivate pro-environmental behaviours online and offline. Power consumption was indeed less 6 months after the game than at baseline. An interview at 12 months after the game gathered information about the participants new habits. The feedback was promising, many participants maintained their electricity saving habits. The second study was done with 3 larger samples (N=526, 137, and 1246) using 5 questionnaires: importance of sustainability, pro-environmental attitudes, household energy consumption, sustainable behaviours, and number of people in the household. Social components like talking about the game at home were among the most influential indicators of behaviour change.

This intervention used meter measures to assess behaviour change, these by themselves do not directly illustrate the elements of behaviour change. Nevertheless, it might have inspired more competition among players. Competition and social diffusion highly foster extrinsic motivation, participants try to keep up with others rather than internalising their behaviours. However, once the new habit is fixed, the change is beneficial to the environment.

Conclusion

Childhood nourishes values and attitudes, and parental structures support habit formation. In the context of pro-environmental behaviour change, these passed on habits are valuable as they do not need to be re-learned later. Behaviour change is expensive in terms of energy and attention. Game-based interventions can reset habits playfully and evoke positive motions towards pro-environmental change. This weakens some negative psychological barriers like denial and defence mechanisms. Online gaming allows exploration of risks involved in change and one can observe social reactions. Games also reach people that avoid serious topics like global warming. Motivation to change can be internalised or extrinsic, both forms initiate people to form new habits. Pro-environmental habits must be secured to be able to survive the threat and stress that comes with global warming.

References

Boomsama, C., Pahl, S., & Andrade, J. (2016). Imagining Change: An Integrative Approach toward Explaining the Motivational Role of Mental Imagery in Pro-Environmental Behaviour. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Vol (7), 1–14.
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01780

Buttlar, B., Latz, M., & Walther, E. (2017). Breaking Bad: Existential Threat Decreases Pro- Environmental Behaviour. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 3, 153–166.
DOI: 10.1080/01973533.2017.1296360

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

Forstmann, M., & Sagioglou, C. (2017). Lifetime experience with (classic) psychedelics predicts pro-environmental behavior through an increase in nature relatedness. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 31, 97 –988.
DOI: 10.1177/0269881117714049

Gifford, R. (2011). The Dragons of Inaction: Psychological Barriers That Limit Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation. American Psychologist, 66, 290–302.
DOI: 10.1037/a0023566

Gifford, R., & Nilsson, A. (2014). Personal and social factors that influence pro‐ environmental concern and behaviour: A review. International Journal of Psychology, 49, 141–157. DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12034

Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T. (1997). Terror management theory of self- esteem and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements. Advances in experimental social psychology, 29, 61–139. DOI:10.1016/S0065–2601(08)60016–7

Grønhøj A., & Thøgersen, J. (2017). Why young people do things for the environment: The role of parenting for adolescents’ motivation to engage in pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 54, 11–19.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.09.005

Ro, M., Brauer, M., Kuntz, K., Shukla, R., & Bensch, I. (2017). Making Cool Choices for sustainability: Testing the effectiveness of a game-based approach to promoting pro- environmental behaviours. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 53, 20–30.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.06.007

Steg, L., & Vlek, C. (2008). Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29, 30 –317. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004